UMBC Psychology Department

Permanent URI for this collectionhttp://hdl.handle.net/11603/45

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Co-Located Supportive Services to Reduce Recidivism in Batterer Intervention
(2025-03-21) Murphy, Christopher; Nworu, Charvonne N. Holliday; Richards, Tara N.
Batterer Intervention Programming (BIP) is a widely used strategy to reduce Intimate Partner Violence. There is an estimate of over 2000 BIPs operating in the U.S., serving a predominantly court-mandated population through psychoeducational services to promote personal accountability and support behavioral change (Cannon et al., 2016; Murphy & Richards, 2022). Research summaries have found mixed evidence of program effectiveness, with most identifying only a small positive benefit in reducing re-offense (Babcock et al., 2024). Thus, there is a great need to develop and study promising new approaches to reduce reoffending among BIP participants in order to enhance the safety of victims and others affected by IPV. Our project investigated a currently under-utilized and under-studied strategy to reduce recidivism among IPV offenders by assessing and addressing common psychosocial problems associated with increased risk for program noncompliance and criminal re-offense.
Resurgence of Severe Challenging Behavior and Schedule Thinning with the Terminal Schedule Probe Method
(MDPI, 2025-03-18) Strohmeier, Craig W.; Thuman, Elizabeth; Falligant, John Michael; Cengher, Mirela; Chin, Michelle D.; Kurtz, Patricia F.
Multiple schedules promote schedule thinning during treatment for challenging behavior. Some strategies for multiple-schedule-thinning progressions include dense-to-lean (DTL; gradually thinning schedules of reinforcement in small steps), fixed lean (FL; abruptly shifting to lean schedules), and terminal probe (TP; probing terminal schedule values to inform subsequent thinning steps) thinning. Recent research indicates that TP thinning offers an empirically derived process for schedule thinning to terminal schedule values. In the current investigation, we replicated, re-analyzed, and extended recent research on the TP-thinning method. The schedule-thinning outcomes were consistent with the initial investigation, indicating that longer periods of reinforcer unavailability were facilitated by TP thinning in comparison with DTL thinning. We also examined resurgence, or the temporary increase in challenging behavior after alternative behavior is placed on extinction, across a wide range of downshifts in reinforcement. When resurgence occurred across ranges of downshifts programmed for both schedule-thinning methods, it occurred more often with DTL thinning. The resurgence analyses did not reveal an exponential increase in challenging behavior as a function of downshifts in reinforcement, which is an interesting departure from recent investigations. Points of discussion include clinical implications and areas for future research on the TP-thinning method.
Individual Versus Group Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Partner-Violent Men: A Preliminary Randomized Trial
(Sage, 2020-08-01) Murphy, Christopher; Eckhardt, Christopher I.; Clifford, Judith M.; LaMotte, Adam Douglas; Meis, Laura A.
A randomized clinical trial tested the hypothesis that a flexible, case formulation-based, individual treatment approach integrating motivational interviewing strategies with cognitive-behavioral therapy (ICBT) is more efficacious than a standardized group cognitive-behavioral approach (GCBT) for perpetrators of intimate partner violence (IPV). Forty-two men presenting for services at a community domestic violence agency were randomized to receive 20 sessions of ICBT or a 20-week group cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) program. Participants and their relationship partners completed assessments of relationship abuse and relationship functioning at baseline and quarterly follow-ups for 1 year. Treatment uptake and session attendance were significantly higher in ICBT than GCBT. However, contrary to the study hypothesis, GCBT produced consistently equivalent or greater benefits than ICBT. Participant self-reports revealed significant reductions in abusive behavior and injuries across conditions with no differential benefits between conditions. Victim partner reports revealed more favorable outcomes for group treatment, including a statistically significant difference in psychological aggression, and differences exceeding a medium effect size for physical assault, emotional abuse, and partner relationship adjustment. In response to hypothetical relationship scenarios, GCBT was associated with greater reductions than ICBT (exceeding a medium effect) in articulated cognitive distortions and aggressive intentions. Treatment competence ratings suggest that flexible, individualized administration of CBT creates challenges in session agenda setting, homework implementation, and formal aspects of relationship skills training. Although caution is needed in generalizing findings from this small-scale trial, the results suggest that the mutual support and positive social influence available in group intervention may be particularly helpful for IPV perpetrators.
Women's Formal Help-Seeking Before and After Their Abusive Partner Initiates Relationship Violence Treatment
(Sage, 2023-02-01) Murphy, Christopher; Nnawulezi, Nkiru; Ting, Laura
Intimate partner violence survivors (N=122) reported on formal help-seeking before and after their male partners enrolled in a Relationship Violence Intervention Program (RVIP). At baseline, only 20% of survivors had ever received domestic abuse (DA) counseling. DA counseling was more common among survivors with more extensive partner abuse exposures, and for black women residing in suburban versus urban communities. New help-seeking was associated with survivor perceptions of the abusive partner's stage of change. RVIP impact may be enhanced through culturally sensitive survivor outreach that is responsive to a broad range of needs and includes repeated contact over time.
Moderators of Response to Motivational Interviewing for Partner-violent Men
(Springer Nature, 2012-10-01) Murphy, Christopher; Linehan, Erin L.; Reyner, Jacqueline Cooper; Musser, Peter H.; Taft, Casey T.
Careful attention to motivation for change may enhance the effects of interventions for partner-violent men. The present study tested predictions about differential response to a two-session motivational intake (MI) for partner-violent men, which was compared to a structured intake (SI) control. For those who were initially reluctant to change, MI produced greater forward movement in stage of change. For those who claimed to have already solved their problems with partner abuse, MI produced greater backward movement in stage of change and greater homework compliance in subsequent group cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT). MI led to a stronger collaborative working alliance for those high in contemplation of change, and greater group session attendance for those with high trait anger. Contrary to hypotheses, analyses of post-CBT partner assault revealed a differentially greater benefit of MI for participants with lower levels of pretreatment contemplation and trait anger. The findings provide qualified support for the expectation that MI has the greatest beneficial effects on those who appear initially reluctant to change.
The effects of treatment for substance use problems on intimate partner violence: A review of empirical data
(Elsevier, 2010-09-01) Murphy, Christopher; Ting, Laura
Population and clinical studies document an association between intimate partner violence (IPV) and substance use problems. The current review addressed the question of whether, and to what extent, treatment for substance use problems is associated with reductions in partner abusive behavior. Data from naturalistic studies were used to examine the prevalence and frequency of IPV before and after substance use treatment, IPV among stably remitted versus relapsed cases after treatment, and factors that may explain observed reductions in partner violence. On average, the prevalence of IPV was 2-3 times higher before substance use treatment than after treatment, and the relative risk for IPV after treatment was 2-3 times greater for relapsed versus remitted cases. Small to moderate effect sizes were observed for reductions in the frequency of IPV after substance use treatment, with large effects observed for reductions in psychological aggression. Both reduced alcohol consumption and improved relationship functioning appear to account for observed reductions in partner abuse.
Motivational Interviewing as a Pregroup Intervention for Partner-Violent Men
(Springer, 2008-10-01) Musser, Peter H.; Semiatin, Joshua N.; Taft, Casey T.; Murphy, Christopher
This study investigated the effects of a pregroup motivational intervention for domestic abuse perpetrators. Men presenting for treatment at a community domestic violence agency (N = 108) were assigned to receive either a two-session intake using the techniques of motivational interviewing (MI) or a structured intake (SI) control. All participants were then referred to a cognitive behavioral treatment (CBT) program in groups homogeneous with respect to intake condition. The motivational intake led to more constructive insession behavior during the early phase of group CBT, greater compliance with group CBT homework assignments, higher late session therapist ratings of the working alliance, and more help seeking outside of the domestic violence program. No significant effects of intake condition were found on session attendance, self-reports of readiness to change abusive behavior, or client reports of the working alliance. Partner reports of abusive behavior outcomes during the 6 months after group CBT revealed a marginal effect favoring the MI condition on physical assault. The findings suggest that motivational interviewing can increase receptivity to partner violence interventions.
Spirituality and Cardiovascular Health in the HANDLS Study: Evidence for Within-Race Differences
(Society for Biopsychosocial Science and Medicine, 2025-02-12) Ashe, Jason J.; Waldstein, Shari R.; Singh, Rupsha; Maino Vieytes, Christian A.; Beydoun, May A.; Mode, Nicolle; Gamaldo, Alyssa; Hampton Jarmon, Marsha; Buxton, Orfeu; Evans, Michele K.; Zonderman, Alan B.
Objective: This cross-sectional study explored the associations between spiritual transcendence (ST)—prayer/meditation fulfillment, connectedness, and universality— and the American Heart Association’s Life’s Simple 7 (LS7), and if variations across and within racial and socioeconomic groups emerged. Methods: Data were taken from the Healthy Aging in Neighborhoods of Diversity across the Life Span study and included 1110 midlife and older African American and white adults [mean (SD) age=56.13 (8.91) y; 65.0% above poverty; 78.1% ≥high school education]. ST was self-reported. LS7 comprised physical activity, smoking, diet, body mass index, cholesterol, glucose, and blood pressure. Higher LS7 reflects better cardiovascular health (CVH). Multiple linear regression estimated associations between ST and LS7. A 3-way interaction term (ST, race, and either education or poverty status) was included in models adjusted for sex and age. Results: A 3-way interaction was observed for ST, race, and poverty status (b=1.29, SE=0.35, p<.001). Simple slopes showed a positive association for white adults living above poverty only (b=0.54, SE=0.15, p<.001). Exploratory analyses found a nonlinear 3-way interactive effect including ST, race, and age (ie, U-shaped; b=0.04, SE=0.02, p=.048). Both lesser and greater ST were associated with higher LS7 for older African American adults exclusively (b=0.03, SE=0.01, p=.024). Conclusions: Although spirituality was associated with overall CVH, it was not beneficial for everyone equally. If tailored appropriately, the integration of spirituality into care practices may promote better CVH.
Home Literacy and Mathematics in Bulgaria, Israel, Spain, and the U.S.: How Do Preschool Parents Socialize Academic Readiness?
(Springer Nature, 2025-02-08) Stites, Michele; Sonnenschein, Susan; Aram, Dorit; Karabanov, Galia Meoded; López-Escribano, Carmen; Shtereva, Katerina; Krasniqi, Besjanë; Gursoy, Hatice
Previous research shows that preschool parents in the United States (U.S.) prioritize literacy over mathematics, despite the importance of both subjects for their child's future academic success. However, less is known about how parents in other countries socialize the literacy and mathematics skills of young children. This paper examines the beliefs of preschool parents from Bulgaria (N=103), Israel (N=167), Spain (N=138), and the U.S. (N=183). These countries were selected due to differences in location, economics, religions, languages, and alphabet. Specifically, we examine the importance parents place on home literacy and mathematics, the time spent in the home on those activities, and parents' confidence in supporting their child's learning in both domains. We also examined the type of support and resources parents in each country would value receiving from their child's teacher. The results indicated the importance of expanding research from just U.S. participants. Parents from all four countries valued home literacy and mathematics but viewed literacy as significantly more important. While parents from all four countries viewed literacy as more important, differences between countries were noted when it came to the time spent on different subjects, with Spain and the U.S. spending more time on literacy and Bulgaria and Israel spending more time on mathematics. Parents from the U.S. indicated significantly higher levels of confidence in supporting literacy than parents in the other three countries; however, no differences were noted in confidence for supporting mathematics. The types of resources that parents would like to receive also varied by country.
Cultivating change: an evaluation of departmental readiness for faculty diversification
(Frontiers, 2025-02-25) Carter-Veale, Wendy Y.; Cresiski, Robin H.; Sharp, Gwen; Lankford, Jordan; Ugarte, Fadel
Despite the increasing number of racially and ethnically minoritized (REM) individuals earning PhDs and the substantial investment in diversity initiatives within higher education, the relative lack of diversity among faculty in tenure-track positions reveals a persistent systemic challenge. This study used an adaptation of the Community Readiness Tool to evaluate readiness for faculty diversification efforts in five biomedical departments. Interviews with 31 key informants were transcribed and coded manually and using NVIVO 12 in order to assign scores to each department in the six domains of readiness. The results revealed no meaningful differences in overall scores across institutional types, but did show differences within specific domains of readiness. These findings indicate that readiness is multi-faceted and academic departments can benefit by identifying priority areas in need of additional faculty buy-in and resources to enhance the success of diversification efforts.
Behind the Curtain: Comparing Predictive Models Performance in 2 Publicly Insured Populations
(Wolters Kluwer Health, 2024-11) Sun, Ruichen; Henderson, Morgan; Goetschius, Leigh; Han, Fei; Stockwell, Ian
Introduction: Predictive models have proliferated in the health system in recent years and have been used to predict both health services utilization and medical outcomes. Less is known, however, on how these models function and how they might adapt to different contexts. The purpose of the current study is to shed light on the inner workings of a large-scale predictive model deployed in 2 distinct populations, with a particular emphasis on adaptability issues. Methods: We compared the performance and functioning of a predictive model of avoidable hospitalization in 2 very different populations: Medicaid and Medicare enrollees in Maryland. Specifically, we assessed characteristics of the risk scores from March 2022 for the 2 populations, the predictive ability of the scores, and the driving risk factors behind the scores. In addition, we created and assessed the performance of an “unadapted” model by applying coefficients from the Medicare model to the Medicaid population. Results: The model adapted to, and performed well in, both populations, despite demographic differences in these 2 groups. However, the most salient risk factors and their relative weightings differed, sometimes dramatically, across the 2 populations. The unadapted Medicaid model displayed poor performance relative to the adapted model. Conclusions: Our findings speak to the need to “peek behind the curtain” of predictive models that may be applied to different populations, and we caution that risk prediction is not “one size fits all”: for optimal performance, models should be adapted to, and trained on, the target population.
Effects of kratom on driving: Results from a cross-sectional survey, ecological momentary assessment, and pilot simulated driving Study
(Taylor & Francis, 2024-05-18) Zamarripa, C. Austin; Spindle, Tory R.; Panlilio, Leigh V.; Strickland, Justin C.; Feldman, Jeffrey D.; Novak, Matthew D.; Epstein, David H.; Dunn, Kelly E.; McCurdy, Christopher R.; Sharma, Abhisheak; Kuntz, Michelle A.; Mukhopadhyay, Sushobhan; Raju, Kanumuri Siva Rama; Rogers, Jeffrey M.; Smith, Kirsten E.
Despite widespread kratom use, there is a lack of knowledge regarding its effects on driving. We evaluated the self-reported driving behaviors of kratom consumers and assessed their simulated-driving performance after self-administering kratom products. We present results from: 1) a remote, national study of US adults who regularly use kratom, and 2) an in-person substudy from which we re-recruited participants. In the national study (N = 357), participants completed a detailed survey and a 15-day ecological momentary assessment (EMA) that monitored naturalistic kratom use. For the remote study, outcomes were self-reported general and risky driving behaviors, perceived impairment, and driving confidence following kratom administration. For the in-person substudy, 10 adults consumed their typical kratom products and their driving performance on a high-fidelity driving simulator pre- and post-kratom administration was evaluated. Over 90% of participants surveyed self-reported driving under the influence of kratom. Most reported low rates of risky driving behavior and expressed high confidence in their driving ability after taking kratom. This was consistent with EMA findings: participants reported feeling confident in their driving ability and perceived little impairment within 15-180 min after using kratom. In the in-person substudy, there were no significant changes in simulated driving performance after taking kratom. Using kratom before driving appears routine, however, self-reported and simulated driving findings suggest kratom effects at self-selected doses among regular kratom consumers do not produce significant changes in subjective and objective measures of driving impairment. Research is needed to objectively characterize kratom's impact on driving in regular and infrequent consumers.
Urcuioli's Differential-Outcomes Research: Implications for Our Behavioral Units
(Wiley) Catania, A. Charles
Our behavioral units include stimulus classes and response classes. Peter Urcuioli's differential-outcomes research implies they should extend to the third term of the three-term contingency. Classes of consequences come in several varieties (e.g., conditional reinforcers, tokens), but our vocabulary does not coherently organize them. They are differentiated not only by physical properties such as type, location and duration but also by the schedule contingencies in which they participate. We consider units ranging from the physical and chemical sciences to those based on the particular history of life on earth. The latter include biology, sociology, linguistics, and our own behavior analysis. Scientific units are typically nested (e.g., atoms within molecules; cells within organs; organisms within species). Comparing our units with those from other taxonomies raises questions about their emergence and evolution and their shared properties across levels of nesting (e.g., species within genus; subclasses within higher-order operants; phonemes within words). Emergence necessarily occurs when higher-order units have functions not shared with their lower-order constituents. These nested and multi-leveled behavior classes challenge single-level views, such as metaphorical accounts of behavior as a totality contained within a pie with slices corresponding to behavior classes matched to their outcomes.
Outcome Expectancies of Partner Abuse: Assessing Perpetrators' Expectancies and Their Associations With Readiness to Change, Abuse, and Relevant Problems
(Sage, 2010-03-01) Meis, Laura A.; Murphy, Christopher; Winters, Jamie J.
Concerns about low motivation to change among perpetrators of intimate partner violence (IPV) have heightened interest employing behavior change models with this population. In the present investigation, a new scale was developed, the Outcome Expectancies for Partner Abuse (OEPA) Scale, assessing the negative and positive outcome expectancies of partner abuse. Items were generated from statements made by IPV offenders during videotaped group therapy sessions. Among a clinical sample of 130 IPV perpetrators, item psychometric properties, factor structure, and subscale validity were examined. Results indicated generally good psychometric properties and a 2-factor solution, with the exception of 4 items subsequently removed from the negative expectancies scale. Significant associations were demonstrated between instrument subscales, readiness to change, and self-reported abusive behavior. Additionally, positive expectancy scores correlated with anger problems and relationship adjustment whereas negative expectancy scores correlated with partner-reported IPV. Potential uses of the OEPA and future directions for psychometric research are discussed.
A manifesto for a globally diverse, equitable, and inclusive open science
(Springer Nature, 2025-01-29) Ghai, Sakshi; Thériault, Rémi; Forscher, Patrick; Shoda, Yuichi; Syed, Moin; Puthillam, Arathy; Peng, Hu Chuan; Basnight-Brown, Dana; Majid, Asifa; Azevedo, Flavio; Singh, Leher
The field of psychology has rapidly transformed its open science practices in recent years. Yet there has been limited progress in integrating principles of diversity, equity and inclusion. In this Perspective, we raise the spectre of Questionable Generalisability Practices and the issue of MASKing (Making Assumptions based on Skewed Knowledge), calling for more responsible practices in generalising study findings and co-authorship to promote global equity in knowledge production. To drive change, researchers must target all four key components of the research process: design, reporting, generalisation, and evaluation. Additionally, macro-level geopolitical factors must be considered to move towards a robust behavioural science that is truly inclusive, representing the voices and experiences of the majority world (i.e., low-and-middle-income countries).
The Uncertain Future of I-O Licensing and Certification: The SIOP Certification Task Force Requests Your Attention
(SIOP, 2023) Shoenfelt, Elizabeth L.; Lasson, Elliot; Lefkowitz, Joel; Lewis, Robert E.; Lowman, Rodney L.; Schroeder, Daniel A.; Walters, Judith C.
Immigrant families' risk and resilience: A multi-method investigation of cultural caregiving and socialization within racialized contexts
(2024-01-01) Aquino, Ana Katrina; Cheah, Charissa S. L.; Psychology; Psychology
Latino and Asian American children and youth make up an increasing proportion of the United States population, yet they remain vulnerable to marginalization in racialized contexts. These contexts include heightened anti-Latino sentiment fueled by anti-immigrant rhetoric and a surge in anti-Asian hate during the COVID-19 pandemic. These challenges, compounded by the need to navigate both their heritage and mainstream cultures, make the role of immigrant caregivers critical in fostering resilience and well-being among children and youth. Guided by several models centering the unique experiences of racially and ethnically minoritized immigrant families, this dissertation comprising three studies investigated how immigrant caregivers and parents employ culturally informed practices to buffer the effects of racial discrimination. Using both qualitative and quantitative methods, this dissertation underscores how caregiving practices serve as adaptive strategies to combat racial marginalization and support children’s well-being.The first study examined the motivations, needs, and experiences of 41 Latino immigrant Family, Friend, and Neighbor child care providers. Findings from focus groups revealed that these caregivers, guided by cultural values like familismo (family unity and commitment), sought to provide safe and nurturing environments for children and meet their emotional needs. Despite facing barriers, they leveraged community networks and intrinsic motivation to fulfill these roles. The second study explored how experiences of racial discrimination experiences among 128 Chinese American parents were related to their adolescents’ well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic. In the face of discrimination, parents communicated messages to increase their children’s awareness of discrimination, but the impact of these messages depended on parental racial socialization competency. Specifically, parents’ higher confidence, knowledge, and skills in racial discussions mitigated the negative effects of awareness of discrimination messages on adolescents’ well-being. The third study used mixed methods with 65 Filipino American parents of adolescents to examine how parents' critical consciousness is related to their racial-ethnic socialization messages. Quantitative findings linked parents' critical consciousness to experiences of discrimination and several racial-ethnic socialization messages, while qualitative findings highlighted key themes in parents’ racial discussions. Converging results showed distinct messaging patterns based on parents’ critical consciousness level, though all parents emphasized belonging and connectedness, reflecting the Filipino value of kapwa (shared identity). Together, the findings from these three studies emphasize the adaptability of immigrant caregiving practices within racialized U.S. contexts and contribute to theories of immigrant risk and resilience. This dissertation also highlights the importance of culturally responsive support systems and socialization practices in fostering resilience among immigrant children and adolescents.
A Qualitative Exploration of the Acculturative Process of Resettled Rohingya Refugees in the United States
(2024-01-01) Zhao, Jenny; Brodsky, Anne E; Psychology; Psychology
This phenomenological study explored the complex, multi-directional acculturationprocess of resettled Rohingya refugees in the United States. By taking a phenomenological approach, the study aimed to expand the traditional parameters of acculturation research, exploring acculturation beyond mere social integration, and humanizing the acculturative experience. This study employed semi-structured interviews, facilitated in English, with eight resettled Rohingya refugees living in the United States. The interviews were transcribed, coded, and qualitatively analyzed to describe the phenomenon of the unique acculturative process as experienced from the Rohingya migration context. All participants were active in the Rohingya community as cultural brokers, interpreters, or community-based leaders. While all eight of the participants had unique experiences, five general themes emerged. Three themes captured the effects of prolonged exposure to institutionalized discrimination on resilience, acculturative experiences, and shifts in Rohingya identity, goals, and values. Two themes reflected the process of liberation to pursue wellness in the post-resettlement context. The findings demonstrate how Rohingya diaspora communities are overcoming oppressive conditions and defining liberation by creating cultural roots and establishing permanency.
The Association of Negative Emotions and Stress with Undiagnosed Diabetes in the Hispanic Community Health Study/Study of Latinos (HCHS/SOL)
(2024-01-01) Splain, Ashley Marie; Khambaty, Tasneem; Psychology; Psychology
Psychological factors play in critical role in disease management, yet most research has focused on sociodemographic factors related to undiagnosed diabetes. Consequently, this study examined associations between psychological factors and diabetes diagnosis status among participants of the Hispanic Community Health Study/Study of Latinos. Participants were 1,012 Hispanic/Latino adults (mean (SD) age: 54 (13) years) with T2DM. Individuals self-reporting T2DM or on medication were categorized as diagnosed (68%; N = 669). Three SEM models were examined, 1) trait emotions: anxiety, loneliness, and hopelessness, 2) distinct stressors: lifetime stress and chronic stress, 3) state emotions: depression and perceived stress. Only distinct stressors appeared significant, more chronic stressors (? = .68, p < .001) and fewer lifetime stressors (? = -.56, p = .001) were associated with diagnosed vs. undiagnosed diabetes. Findings suggest that distinct stressors rather than emotional distress may be of greater relevance to diabetes diagnosis status among Hispanics/Latino adults.
Impact of language ability in assessing psychosis-risk
(2023-01-01) Fitzgerald, John; Pitts, Steven; Psychology; Psychology
Psychosis-risk screening tools have demonstrated utility for improving psychosis-risk detection, which in turn lays the groundwork for clinician-administered interviews to elucidate how psychotic symptoms are experienced. Effective screening tool use is reliant upon the individual’s ability to relate abstract and sometimes mystifying experiences, whereas clinician-led diagnostic interviews are a more interactive process. Unfortunately, those at-risk for, or experiencing, psychosis often exhibit higher levels of receptive and expressive language deficits than those not at risk, suggesting the possibility that the screening process may be differentially impacted in the very population of interest. This study first tested whether a measure of overall communication could be parsed into measures of receptive and expressive abilities. Subsequently, it was confirmed that the screening tools were related to clinical interviews of psychosis-risk. Following this, the three measures of communication (overall, receptive ability, and expressive ability) were evaluated as moderators of the association between self-administered screening tools and a clinician-led interview for assessing psychosis-risk. Results first indicated that both screening tool types were effective in screening for psychosis-risk, as validated by the clinical interview. It was also found that a measure of expressive (though not receptive) language ability could be extracted from overall communication, though neither expressive language ability nor overall functional communication moderated the screening tool and interview relations. As communication did not appear to moderate the efficacy of either screening tool, follow up analyses examining the efficacy of screening tools between probe types were not conducted.

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